RESUMO
This report provides a descriptive analysis of the African swine fever (ASF) Genotype II epidemic in the affected Member States in the EU and two neighbouring countries for the period from 1 September 2020 to 31 August 2021. ASF continued to spread in wild boar in the EU, it entered Germany in September 2020, while Belgium became free from ASF in October 2020. No ASF outbreaks in domestic pigs nor cases in wild boar have been reported in Greece since February 2020. In the Baltic States, overall, there has been a declining trend in proportions of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-positive samples from wild boar carcasses in the last few years. In the other countries, the proportions of PCR-positive wild boar carcasses remained high, indicating continuing spread of the disease. A systematic literature review revealed that the risk factors most frequently significantly associated with ASF in domestic pigs were pig density, low levels of biosecurity and socio-economic factors. For wild boar, most significant risk factors were related to habitat, socio-economic factors and wild boar management. The effectiveness of different control options in the so-named white zones, areas where wild boar densities have been drastically reduced to avoid further spread of ASF after a new introduction, was assessed with a stochastic model. Important findings were that establishing a white zone is much more challenging when the area of ASF incursion is adjacent to an area where limited control measures are in place. Very stringent wild boar population reduction measures in the white zone are key to success. The white zone needs to be far enough away from the affected core area so that the population can be reduced in time before the disease arrives and the timing of this will depend on the wild boar density and the required population reduction target in the white zone. Finally, establishing a proactive white zone along the demarcation line of an affected area requires higher culling efforts, but has a higher chance of success to stop the spread of the disease than establishing reactive white zones after the disease has already entered in the area.
RESUMO
An update on the African swine fever (ASF) situation in the 10 affected Member States (MS) in the EU and in two neighbouring countries from the 1 September 2019 until the 31 August 2020 is provided. The dynamics of the proportions of PCR- and ELISA-positive samples since the first ASF detection in the country were provided and seasonal patterns were investigated. The impact of the ASF epidemic on the annual numbers of hunted wild boar in each affected MS was investigated. To evaluate differences in the extent of spread of ASF in the wild boar populations, the number of notifications that could be classified as secondary cases to a single source was calculated for each affected MS and compared for the earliest and latest year of the epidemic in the country. To evaluate possible risk factors for the occurrence of ASFV in wild boar or domestic pigs, a literature review was performed. Risk factors for the occurrence of ASF in wild boar in Romanian hunting grounds in 2019 were identified with a generalised linear model. The probability to find at least one PCR-confirmed ASF case in wild boar in a hunting ground in Romania was driven by environmental factors, wild boar abundance and the density of backyard pigs in the hunting ground area, while hunting-related variables were not retained in the final model. Finally, measures implemented in white zones (ASF-free zones that are geographically adjacent to an area where ASF is present in wild boar) to prevent further spread of ASF were analysed with a spatially, explicit stochastic individual-based model. To be effective, the wild boar population in the white zone would need to be drastically reduced before ASF arrives at the zone and it must be wide enough. To achieve the necessary pre-emptive culling targets of wild boar in the white zone, at the start of the establishment, the white zone should be placed sufficiently far from the affected area, considering the speed of the natural spread of the disease. This spread is faster in denser wild boar populations. After a focal ASF introduction, the white zone is always close to the infection hence pre-emptive culling measures in the white zone must be completed in short term, i.e. in a few months.
RESUMO
OBJECTIVES: Determining the in vitro susceptibility to 11 antibiotics of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica strains belonging to the phylogenetic group B.13, from different areas of Hungary. METHODS: Twenty-nine F. tularensis strains isolated between 2003 and 2010 from free-ranging European brown hares (Lepus europaeus) and a captive patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) were collected from different parts of Hungary and examined for antibiotic susceptibility with commercially available MIC test strips on modified Francis agar plates; values were interpreted according to CLSI breakpoints. RESULTS: The strains were susceptible to aminoglycosides (MIC(90) values: gentamicin, 0.75 mg/L; and streptomycin, 6.0 mg/L), tetracyclines (MIC(90) values: tetracycline, 0.5 mg/L; and doxycycline, 1.0 mg/L), quinolones (MIC(90) values: ciprofloxacin, 0.047 mg/L; and levofloxacin, 0.023 mg/L) and chloramphenicol (MIC(90) value: 1.5 mg/L), i.e. antibiotics commonly used in therapy. Tigecycline (MIC(90) value: 0.19 mg/L) and rifampicin (MIC(90) value: 1.0 mg/L) were also active against F. tularensis strains, while resistance to erythromycin (MIC(90) value: >256 mg/L) and linezolid (MIC(90) value: 32 mg/L) was observed in all strains. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the results, quinolones are recommended as first choice therapy for F. tularensis infection. The in vitro susceptibility of the strains to tigecycline may encourage the application of this antibiotic as well. The similar antibiotic susceptibilities of the Hungarian strains belonging to different subclades of phylogenetic group B.13 indicates that strains from other Central and Eastern European countries belonging to this group might also have the same susceptibility profile.
